Corinth
- a Grecian city,
on the isthmus which joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. It is about
48 miles west of Athens. The ancient city was destroyed by the Romans (B.C. 146),
and that mentioned in the New Testament was quite a new city, having been rebuilt
about a century afterwards and peopled by a colony of freedmen from Rome. It became
under the Romans the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts 18:12-16).
It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious and immoral and vicious habits
of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. When
Paul first visited the city (A.D. 51 or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was
proconsul. Here Paul resided for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became
aquainted with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure Apollos came
to it from Ephesus. After an interval he visited it a second time, and remained
for three months (20:3). During this second visit his Epistle to the Romans was
written (probably A.D. 55). Although there were many Jewish converts at Corinth,
yet the Gentile element prevailed in the church there.
Some
have argued from 2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1, that Paul visited Corinth a third time (i.e.,
that on some unrecorded occasion he visited the city between what are usually
called the first and second visits). But the passages referred to only indicate
Paul's intention to visit Corinth (comp. 1 Cor. 16:5, where the Greek present
tense denotes an intention), an intention which was in some way frustrated. We
can hardly suppose that such a visit could have been made by the apostle without
more distinct reference to it.
Corinthians,
First Epistle to the - was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about the time
of the Passover in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19:10;
20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit Macedonia, and then return
to Corinth (probably A.D. 57).
The
news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had
heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them, first from Apollos
(Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they had written him on the subject, and also
from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two friends
who had visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Paul thereupon wrote this letter, for
the purpose of checking the factious spirit and correcting the erroneous opinions
that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly practices
that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the
bearers of the letter (2 Cor. 2:13; 8:6, 16-18).
The
epistle may be divided into four parts:
(1.)
The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party strifes
that had arisen among them (1 Cor. 1-4).
(2.)
He next treats of certain cases of immorality that had become notorious among
them. They had apparently set at nought the very first principles of morality
(5; 6).
(3.) In the third
part he discusses various questions of doctrine and of Christian ethics in reply
to certain communications they had made to him. He especially rectifies certain
flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the Lord's supper (7-14).
(4.)
The concluding part (15; 16) contains an elaborate defense of the doctrine of
the resurrection of the dead, which had been called in question by some among
them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and greetings.
This
epistle "shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his physical
weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional
nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much affliction
and pressure of heart...and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor. 2:4); yet he restrained
the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy calm which he
thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives a vivid picture
of the early church...It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church
was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine." The
apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted to guide the
church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred evils in whatever form
they may appear.
This is
one of the epistles the authenticity of which has never been called in question
by critics of any school, so many and so conclusive are the evidences of its Pauline
origin.
The subscription
to this epistle states erroneously in the Authorized Version that it was written
at Philippi. This error arose from a mistranslation of 1 Cor. 16:5, "For I do
pass through Macedonia," which was interpreted as meaning, "I am passing through
Macedonia." In 16:8 he declares his intention of remaining some time longer in
Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to "pass through Macedonia."
Corinthians,
Second Epistle to the - Shortly after writing his first letter to the Corinthians,
Paul left Ephesus, where intense excitement had been aroused against him, the
evidence of his great success, and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual
route, he reached Troas, the port of departure for Europe. Here he expected to
meet with Titus, whom he had sent from Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of the
effects produced on the church there by the first epistle; but was disappointed
(1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 1:8; 2:12, 13). He then left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia;
and at Philippi, where he tarried, he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7:6, 7),
who brought him good news from Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the influence
of the feelings awakened in his mind by the favourable report which Titus brought
back from Corinth, this second epistle was written. It was probably written at
Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, early in the year A.D. 58, and was
sent to Corinth by Titus. This letter he addresses not only to the church in Corinth,
but also to the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities
in Greece.
The contents of
this epistle may be thus arranged:
(1.)
Paul speaks of his spiritual labours and course of life, and expresses his warm
affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1-7).
(2.)
He gives specific directions regarding the collection that was to be made for
their poor brethren in Judea (8; 9).
(3.)
He defends his own apostolic claim (10-13), and justifies himself from the charges
and insinuations of the false teacher and his adherents.
This
epistle, it has been well said, shows the individuallity of the apostle more than
any other. "Human weakness, spiritual strength, the deepest tenderness of affection,
wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility,
a just self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and suffering, as well as
for the progress of the church of Christ and for the spiritual advancement of
its members, are all displayed in turn in the course of his appeal."--Lias, Second
Corinthians.
Of the effects
produced on the Corinthian church by this epistle we have no definite information.
We know that Paul visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and
that on that occasion he tarried there for three months. In his letter to Rome,
written at this time, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of
the church to the Romans.
Cormorant
- (Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17), Heb. shalak, "plunging," or "darting down," (the
Phalacrocorax carbo), ranked among the "unclean" birds; of the same family group
as the pelican. It is a "plunging" bird, and is common on the coasts and the island
seas of Palestine. Some think the Hebrew word should be rendered "gannet" (Sula
bassana, "the solan goose"); others that it is the "tern" or "sea swallow," which
also frequents the coasts of Palestine as well as the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan
valley during several months of the year. But there is no reason to depart from
the ordinary rendering.
In
Isa. 34:11, Zeph. 2:14 (but in R.V., "pelican") the Hebrew word rendered by this
name is ka'ath. It is translated "pelican" (q.v.) in Ps. 102:6. The word
literally means the "vomiter," and the pelican is so called from its vomiting
the shells and other things which it has voraciously swallowed. (See PELICAN.)
Corn
- The word so rendered (dagan) in Gen. 27:28, 37, Num. 18:27, Deut. 28:51,
Lam. 2:12, is a general term representing all the commodities we usually describe
by the words corn, grain, seeds, peas, beans. With this corresponds the use of
the word in John 12:24.
In
Gen. 41:35, 49, Prov. 11:26, Joel 2:24 ("wheat"), the word thus translated (bar;
i.e., "winnowed") means corn purified from chaff. With this corresponds the use
of the word in the New Testament (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17; Acts 7:12). In Ps. 65:13
it means "growing corn."
In
Gen. 42:1, 2, 19, Josh. 9:14, Neh. 10:31 ("victuals"), the word (sheber; i.e.,
"broken," i.e., grist) denotes generally victuals, provisions, and corn as a principal
article of food.
From the
time of Solomon, corn began to be exported from Palestine (Ezek. 27:17; Amos 8:5).
"Plenty of corn" was a part of Issac's blessing conferred upon Jacob (Gen. 27:28;
comp. Ps. 65:13).
Cornelius
- a centurion whose history is narrated in Acts 10. He was a "devout man,"
and like the centurion of Capernaum, believed in the God of Israel. His residence
at Caesrea probably brought him into contact with Jews who communicated to him
their expectations regarding the Messiah; and thus he was prepared to welcome
the message Peter brought him. He became the first fruit of the Gentile world
to Christ. He and his family were baptized and admitted into the Christian church
(Acts 10:1, 44-48). (See CENTURION.)
Corner
- The angle of a house (Job 1:19) or a street (Prov. 7:8). "Corners" in Neh.
9:22 denotes the various districts of the promised land allotted to the Israelites.
In Num. 24:17, the "corners of Moab" denotes the whole land of Moab. The "corner
of a field" (Lev. 19:9; 23:22) is its extreme part, which was not to be reaped.
The Jews were prohibited from cutting the "corners," i.e., the extremities, of
the hair and whiskers running round the ears (Lev. 19:27; 21:5). The "four corners
of the earth" in Isa. 11:12 and Ezek. 7:2 denotes the whole land. The "corners
of the streets" mentioned in Matt. 6:5 means the angles where streets meet so
as to form a square or place of public resort.
The
corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr. 26:9) was on the north-west side
of the city.
Corner-stone
(Job 38:6; Isa. 28:16), a block of great importance in binding together the sides
of a building. The "head of the corner" (Ps. 118:22, 23) denotes the coping, the
"coign of vantage", i.e., the topstone of a building. But the word "corner stone"
is sometimes used to denote some person of rank and importance (Isa. 28:16). It
is applied to our Lord, who was set in highest honour (Matt. 21:42). He is also
styled "the chief corner stone" (Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet. 2:6-8). When Zechariah (10:4),
speaking of Judah, says, "Out of him came forth the corner," he is probably to
be understood as ultimately referring to the Messiah as the "corner stone." (See
TEMPLE, SOLOMON'S ¯T0003612.)
Cornet
- Heb. shophar, "brightness," with reference to the clearness of its sound
(1 Chr. 15:28; 2 Chr. 15:14; Ps. 98:6; Hos. 5:8). It is usually rendered in the
Authorized Version "trumpet." It denotes the long and straight horn, about eighteen
inches long. The words of Joel, "Blow the trumpet," literally, "Sound the cornet,"
refer to the festival which was the preparation for the day of Atonement. In Dan.
3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word (keren) so rendered is a curved horn. The word "cornet"
in 2 Sam. 6:5 (Heb. mena'an'im, occurring only here) was some kind of instrument
played by being shaken like the Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or bells
hung loosely on iron rods.
Cotes
- pens or enclosures for flocks (2 Chr. 32:28, "cotes for flocks;" R.V., "flocks
in folds").
Cottage
- (1.) A booth in a vineyard (Isa. 1:8); a temporary shed covered with leaves
or straw to shelter the watchman that kept the garden. These were slight fabrics,
and were removed when no longer needed, or were left to be blown down in winter
(Job 27:18).
(2.) A lodging-place
(rendered "lodge" in Isa. 1:8); a slighter structure than the "booth," as the
cucumber patch is more temporary than a vineyard (Isa. 24:20). It denotes a frail
structure of boughs supported on a few poles, which is still in use in the East,
or a hammock suspended between trees, in which the watchman was accustomed to
sleep during summer.
(3.)
In Zeph. 2:6 it is the rendering of the Hebrew keroth, which some suppose
to denote rather "pits" (R.V. marg., "caves") or "wells of water," such as shepherds
would sink.
Couch
- (Gen. 49:4; 1 Chr. 5:1; Job 7:13; Ps. 6:6, etc.), a seat for repose or rest.
(See BED.)
Coulter
- (1 Sam. 13:20, 21), an agricultural instrument, elsewhere called "ploughshare"
(Isa. 2:4; Micah 4:3; Joel 3:10). It was the facing-piece of a plough, analogous
to the modern coulter.
Council
- spoken of counsellors who sat in public trials with the governor of a province
(Acts 25:12).
The Jewish
councils were the Sanhedrim, or supreme council of the nation, which had subordinate
to it smaller tribunals (the "judgment," perhaps, in Matt. 5:21, 22) in the cities
of Palestine (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). In the time of Christ the functions of
the Sanhedrim were limited (John 16:2; 2 Cor. 11:24). In Ps. 68:27 the word "council"
means simply a company of persons. (R.V. marg., "company.")
In
ecclesiastical history the word is used to denote an assembly of pastors or bishops
for the discussion and regulation of church affairs. The first of these councils
was that of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem, of which we have a detailed
account in Acts 15.
Counsellor
- an adviser (Prov. 11:14; 15:22), a king's state counsellor (2 Sam. 15:12).
Used once of the Messiah (Isa. 9:6). In Mark 15:43, Luke 23:50, the word probably
means a member of the Jewish Sanhedrim.
Courses
- When David was not permitted to build the temple, he proceeded, among the
last acts of his life, with the assistance of Zadok and Ahimelech, to organize
the priestly and musical services to be conducted in the house of God. (1.) He
divided the priests into twenty-four courses (1 Chr. 24:1-19), sixteen being of
the house of Eleazar and eight of that of Ithamar. Each course was under a head
or chief, and ministered for a week, the order being determined by lot. (2.) The
rest of the 38,000 Levites (23:4) were divided also into twenty-four courses,
each to render some allotted service in public worship: 4,000 in twenty-four courses
were set apart as singers and musicians under separate leaders (25); 4,000 as
porters or keepers of the doors and gates of the sanctuary (26:1-19); and 6,000
as officers and judges to see to the administration of the law in all civil and
ecclesiastical matters (20-32).
This
arrangement was re-established by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:2); and afterwards the four
sacerdotal courses which are said to have returned from the Captivity were re-divided
into the original number of twenty-four by Ezra (6:18).
Court
- the enclosure of the tabernacle (Ex. 27:9-19; 40:8), of the temple (1 Kings
6:36), of a prison (Neh. 3:25), of a private house (2 Sam. 17:18), and of a king's
palace (2 Kings 20:4).
Covenant
- a contract or agreement between two parties. In the Old Testament the Hebrew
word berith is always thus translated. Berith is derived from a
root which means "to cut," and hence a covenant is a "cutting," with reference
to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties
passing between them, in making a covenant (Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19).
The
corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke, which is, however,
rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought to be rendered,
just as the word berith of the Old Testament, "covenant."
This
word is used (1) of a covenant or compact between man and man (Gen. 21:32), or
between tribes or nations (1 Sam. 11:1; Josh. 9:6, 15). In entering into a convenant,
Jehovah was solemnly called on to witness the transaction (Gen. 31:50), and hence
it was called a "covenant of the Lord" (1 Sam. 20:8). The marriage compact is
called "the covenant of God" (Prov. 2:17), because the marriage was made in God's
name. Wicked men are spoken of as acting as if they had made a "covenant with
death" not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour them (Isa. 28:15, 18).
(2.) The word is used with
reference to God's revelation of himself in the way of promise or of favour to
men. Thus God's promise to Noah after the Flood is called a covenant (Gen. 9;
Jer. 33:20, "my covenant"). We have an account of God's covernant with Abraham
(Gen. 17, comp. Lev. 26:42), of the covenant of the priesthood (Num. 25:12, 13;
Deut. 33:9; Neh. 13:29), and of the covenant of Sinai (Ex. 34:27, 28; Lev. 26:15),
which was afterwards renewed at different times in the history of Israel (Deut.
29; Josh. 1:24; 2 Chr. 15; 23; 29; 34; Ezra 10; Neh. 9). In conformity with human
custom, God's covenant is said to be confirmed with an oath (Deut. 4:31; Ps. 89:3),
and to be accompanied by a sign (Gen. 9; 17). Hence the covenant is called God's
"counsel," "oath," "promise" (Ps. 89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb. 6:13-20; Luke 1:68-75).
God's covenant consists wholly in the bestowal of blessing (Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33,
34).
The term covenant is
also used to designate the regular succession of day and night (Jer. 33:20), the
Sabbath (Ex. 31:16), circumcision (Gen. 17:9, 10), and in general any ordinance
of God (Jer. 34:13, 14).
A
"covenant of salt" signifies an everlasting covenant, in the sealing or ratifying
of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, is used (Num. 18:19; Lev. 2:13; 2 Chr.
13:5).
COVENANT OF WORKS,
the constitution under which Adam was placed at his creation. In this covenant,
(1.) The contracting parties were (a) God the moral Governor, and (b) Adam, a
free moral agent, and representative of all his natural posterity (Rom. 5:12-19).
(2.) The promise was "life" (Matt. 19:16, 17; Gal. 3:12). (3.) The condition was
perfect obedience to the law, the test in this case being abstaining from eating
the fruit of the "tree of knowledge," etc. (4.) The penalty was death (Gen. 2:16,
17).
This covenant is also
called a covenant of nature, as made with man in his natural or unfallen state;
a covenant of life, because "life" was the promise attached to obedience; and
a legal covenant, because it demanded perfect obedience to the law.
The
"tree of life" was the outward sign and seal of that life which was promised in
the covenant, and hence it is usually called the seal of that covenant.
This
covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled all its
conditions in behalf of his people, and now offers salvation on the condition
of faith. It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable justice
of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to Christ and accepted his righteousness.
CONVENANT OF GRACE, the eternal
plan of redemption entered into by the three persons of the Godhead, and carried
out by them in its several parts. In it the Father represented the Godhead in
its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his people as their surety (John 17:4,
6, 9; Isa. 42:6; Ps. 89:3).
The
conditions of this covenant were, (1.) On the part of the Father (a) all needful
preparation to the Son for the accomplishment of his work (Heb. 10:5; Isa. 42:1-7);
(b) support in the work (Luke 22:43); and (c) a glorious reward in the exaltation
of Christ when his work was done (Phil. 2:6-11), his investiture with universal
dominion (John 5:22; Ps. 110:1), his having the administration of the covenant
committed into his hands (Matt. 28:18; John 1:12; 17:2; Acts 2:33), and in the
final salvation of all his people (Isa. 35:10; 53:10, 11; Jer. 31:33; Titus 1:2).
(2.) On the part of the Son the conditions were (a) his becoming incarnate (Gal.
4:4, 5); and (b) as the second Adam his representing all his people, assuming
their place and undertaking all their obligations under the violated covenant
of works; (c) obeying the law (Ps. 40:8; Isa. 42:21; John 9:4, 5), and (d) suffering
its penalty (Isa. 53; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13), in their stead.
Christ,
the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in behalf of his people, and dispenses
to them all its blessings. In Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24, this title is given to Christ.
(See DISPENSATION.)
Covering
of the eyes - occurs only in Gen. 20:16. In the Revised Version the rendering
is "it (i.e., Abimelech's present of 1,000 pieces of silver to Abraham) is for
thee a covering of the eyes." This has been regarded as an implied advice to Sarah
to conform to the custom of married women, and wear a complete veil, covering
the eyes as well as the rest of the face.
Covetousness
- a strong desire after the possession of worldly things (Col. 3:5; Eph. 5:5;
Heb. 13:5; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10; Matt. 6:20). It assumes sometimes the more aggravated
form of avarice, which is the mark of cold-hearted worldliness.
Cow
- A cow and her calf were not to be killed on the same day (Lev. 22:28; Ex.
23:19; Deut. 22:6, 7). The reason for this enactment is not given. A state of
great poverty is described in the words of Isa. 7:21-25, where, instead of possessing
great resources, a man shall depend for the subsistence of himself and his family
on what a single cow and two sheep could yield.
Crane
- (Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7). In both of these passages the Authorized Version
has reversed the Hebrew order of the words. "Crane or swallow" should be "swallow
or crane," as in the Revised Version. The rendering is there correct. The Hebrew
for crane is 'agur, the Grus cincerea, a bird well known in Palestine.
It is migratory, and is distinguished by its loud voice, its cry being hoarse
and melancholy.
Creation
- "In the beginning" God created, i.e., called into being, all things out
of nothing. This creative act on the part of God was absolutely free, and for
infinitely wise reasons. The cause of all things exists only in the will of God.
The work of creation is attributed (1) to the Godhead (Gen. 1:1, 26); (2) to the
Father (1 Cor. 8:6); (3) to the Son (John 1:3; Col. 1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy
Spirit (Gen. 1:2; Job 26:13; Ps. 104:30). The fact that he is the Creator distinguishes
Jehovah as the true God (Isa. 37:16; 40:12, 13; 54:5; Ps. 96:5; Jer. 10:11, 12).
The one great end in the work of creation is the manifestation of the glory of
the Creator (Col. 1:16; Rev. 4:11; Rom. 11:36). God's works, equally with God's
word, are a revelation from him; and between the teachings of the one and those
of the other, when rightly understood, there can be no contradiction.
Traditions
of the creation, disfigured by corruptions, are found among the records of ancient
Eastern nations. (See ACCAD.) A peculiar
interest belongs to the traditions of the Accadians, the primitive inhabitants
of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. These within the last few years have been
brought to light in the tablets and cylinders which have been rescued from the
long-buried palaces and temples of Assyria. They bear a remarkable resemblance
to the record of Genesis.
Creature
- denotes the whole creation in Rom. 8:39; Col. 1:15; Rev. 5:13; the whole
human race in Mark 16:15; Rom. 8:19-22.
The
living creatures in Ezek. 10:15, 17, are imaginary beings, symbols of the Divine
attributes and operations.
Crescens
- increasing, probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He was one
of Paul's assistants (2 Tim. 4:10), probably a Christian of Rome.
Crete
- now called Candia, one of the largest islands in the Meditterranean, about
140 miles long and 35 broad. It was at one time a very prosperous and populous
island, having a "hundred cities." The character of the people is described in
Paul's quotation from "one of their own poets" (Epimenides) in his epistle to
Titus: "The Cretans are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies" (Titus 1:12).
Jews from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The island
was visited by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27). Here Paul subsequently left
Titus (1:5) "to ordain elders." Some have supposed that it was the original home
of the Caphtorim (q.v.) or Philistines.
Crisping-pin
- (Isa. 3:22; R.V., "satchel"), some kind of female ornament, probably like
the modern reticule. The Hebrew word harit properly signifies pouch or
casket or purse. It is rendered "bag" in 2 Kings 5:23.
Crispus
- curled, the chief of the synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18:8). He was converted
and, with his family, baptized by Paul (1 Cor. 1:14).
Cross
- in the New Testament the instrument of crucifixion, and hence used for the
crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph. 2:16; Heb. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1:17, 18; Gal. 5:11;
6:12, 14; Phil. 3:18). The word is also used to denote any severe affliction or
trial (Matt. 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; 10:21).
The
forms in which the cross is represented are these:
1.
The crux simplex (I), a "single piece without transom."
2.
The crux decussata (X), or St. Andrew's cross.
3.
The crux commissa (T), or St. Anthony's cross.
4.
The crux immissa (t), or Latin cross, which was the kind of cross on which our
Saviour died. Above our Lord's head, on the projecting beam, was placed the "title."
(See CRUCIFIXION.)
After the conversion, so-called,
of Constantine the Great (B.C. 313), the cross first came into use as an emblem
of Christianity. He pretended at a critical moment that he saw a flaming cross
in the heavens bearing the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces", i.e., By this sign
thou shalt conquer, and that on the following night Christ himself appeared and
ordered him to take for his standard the sign of this cross. In this form a new
standard, called the Labarum, was accordingly made, and borne by the Roman armies.
It remained the standard of the Roman army till the downfall of the Western empire.
It bore the embroidered monogram of Christ, i.e., the first two Greek letters
of his name, X and P (chi and rho), with the Alpha and Omega. (See A.)
Crown
- (1.) Denotes the plate of gold in the front of the high priest's mitre (Ex.
29:6; 39:30). The same Hebrew word so rendered (ne'zer) denotes the diadem worn
by Saul in battle (2 Sam. 1:10), and also that which was used at the coronation
of Joash (2 Kings 11:12).
(2.)
The more general name in Hebrew for a crown is 'atarah, meaning a "circlet."
This is used of crowns and head ornaments of divers kinds, including royal crowns.
Such was the crown taken from the king of Ammon by David (2 Sam. 12:30). The crown
worn by the Assyrian kings was a high mitre, sometimes adorned with flowers. There
are sculptures also representing the crowns worn by the early Egyptian and Persian
kings. Sometimes a diadem surrounded the royal head-dress of two or three fillets.
This probably signified that the wearer had dominion over two or three countries.
In Rev. 12:3; 13:1, we read of "many crowns," a token of extended dominion.
(3.)
The ancient Persian crown (Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was called kether; i.e.,
"a chaplet," a high cap or tiara. Crowns were worn sometimes to represent honour
and power (Ezek. 23:42). They were worn at marriages (Cant. 3:11; Isa. 61:10,
"ornaments;" R.V., "a garland"), and at feasts and public festivals.
The
crown was among the Romans and Greeks a symbol of victory and reward. The crown
or wreath worn by the victors in the Olympic games was made of leaves of the wild
olive; in the Pythian games, of laurel; in the Nemean games, of parsley; and in
the Isthmian games, of the pine. The Romans bestowed the "civic crown" on him
who saved the life of a citizen. It was made of the leaves of the oak. In opposition
to all these fading crowns the apostles speak of the incorruptible crown, the
crown of life (James 1:12; Rev. 2:10) "that fadeth not away" (1 Pet. 5:4, Gr.
amarantinos; comp. 1:4). Probably the word "amaranth" was applied to flowers we
call "everlasting," the "immortal amaranth."
Crown
of thorns - our Lord was crowned with a, in mockery by the Romans (Matt. 27:29).
The object of Pilate's guard in doing this was probably to insult, and not specially
to inflict pain. There is nothing to show that the shrub thus used was, as has
been supposed, the spina Christi, which could have been easily woven into a wreath.
It was probably the thorny nabk, which grew abundantly round about Jerusalem,
and whose flexible, pliant, and round branches could easily be platted into the
form of a crown. (See THORN ¯T0003642, 3.)
Crucifixion
- a common mode of punishment among heathen nations in early times. It is
not certain whether it was known among the ancient Jews; probably it was not.
The modes of capital punishment according to the Mosaic law were, by the sword
(Ex. 21), strangling, fire (Lev. 20), and stoning (Deut. 21).
This
was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and to a Jew it would acquire
greater horror from the curse in Deut. 21:23.
This
punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to scourging. In the case of our Lord,
however, his scourging was rather before the sentence was passed upon him, and
was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting pity and procuring
his escape from further punishment (Luke 23:22; John 19:1).
The
condemned one carried his own cross to the place of execution, which was outside
the city, in some conspicuous place set apart for the purpose. Before the nailing
to the cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh
(the sopor) was given, for the purpose of deadening the pangs of the sufferer.
Our Lord refused this cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt. 27:34). The spongeful
of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of the Roman soldiers, which was
put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt. 27:48;
Luke 23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of his thirst (John 19:29). The accounts
given of the crucifixion of our Lord are in entire agreement with the customs
and practices of the Roman in such cases. He was crucified between two "malefactors"
(Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:32), and was watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23;
Matt. 27:36, 54), with their centurion. The "breaking of the legs" of the malefactors
was intended to hasten death, and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the
unusual rapidity of our Lord's death (19:33) was due to his previous sufferings
and his great mental anguish. The omission of the breaking of his legs was the
fulfilment of a type (Ex. 12:46). He literally died of a broken heart, a ruptured
heart, and hence the flowing of blood and water from the wound made by the soldier's
spear (John 19:34). Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the cross, namely,
(1) Luke 23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26; (4) Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John
19:28; (6) 19:30; (7) Luke 23:46.
Cruse
- a utensil; a flask or cup for holding water (1 Sam. 26:11, 12, 16; 1 Kings
19:6) or oil (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). In 1 Kings 14:3 the word there so rendered
means properly a bottle, as in Jer. 19:1, 10, or pitcher. In 2 Kings 2:20, a platter
or flat metal saucer is intended. The Hebrew word here used is translated "dish"
in 21:13; "pans," in 2 Chr. 35:13; and "bosom," in Prov. 19:24; 26:15 (R.V., "dish").
Crystal
- (Ezek. 1:22, with the epithet "terrible," as dazzling the spectators with
its brightness). The word occurs in Rev. 4:6; 21:11; 22:1. It is a stone of the
flint order, the most refined kind of quartz. The Greek word here used means also
literally "ice." The ancients regarded the crystal as only pure water congealed
into extreme hardness by great length of time.
Cubit
- Heb. 'ammah; i.e., "mother of the arm," the fore-arm, is a word derived
from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It is difficult to determine the exact
length of this measure, from the uncertainty whether it included the entire length
from the elbow to the tip of the longest finger, or only from the elbow to the
root of the hand at the wrist. The probability is that the longer was the original
cubit. The common computation as to the length of the cubit makes it 20.24 inches
for the ordinary cubit, and 21.888 inches for the sacred one. This is the same
as the Egyptian measurements.
A
rod or staff the measure of a cubit is called in Judg. 3:16 gomed, which
literally means a "cut," something "cut off." The LXX. and Vulgate render it "span."
Cuckoo
- (Heb. shahaph), from a root meaning "to be lean; slender." This bird is
mentioned only in Lev. 11:16 and Deut. 14:15 (R.V., "seamew"). Some have interpreted
the Hebrew word by "petrel" or "shearwater" (Puffinus cinereus), which is found
on the coast of Syria; others think it denotes the "sea-gull" or "seamew." The
common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) feeds on reptiles and large insects. It is found
in Asia and Africa as well as in Europe. It only passes the winter in Palestine.
The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry Yakub_, and hence they call it _tir el-Yakub;
i.e., "Jacob's bird."
Cucumbers
- (Heb. plur. kishshuim; i.e., "hard," "difficult" of digestion, only in Num.
11:5). This vegetable is extensively cultivated in the East at the present day,
as it appears to have been in earlier times among the Hebrews. It belongs to the
gourd family of plants. In the East its cooling pulp and juice are most refreshing.
"We need not altogether wonder that the Israelites, wearily marching through the
arid solitudes of the Sinaitic peninsula, thought more of the cucumbers and watermelons
of which they had had no lack in Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage which
was the price of these luxuries." Groser's Scripture Natural History.
Isaiah
speaks of a "lodge" (1:8; Heb. sukkah), i.e., a shed or edifice more solid than
a booth, for the protection throughout the season from spring to autumn of the
watchers in a "garden of cucumbers."
Cummin
- (Heb. kammon; i.e., a "condiment"), the fruit or seed of an umbelliferous
plant, the Cuminum sativum, still extensively cultivated in the East. Its fruit
is mentioned in Isa. 28:25, 27. In the New Testament it is mentioned in Matt.
23:23, where our Lord pronounces a "woe" on the scribes and Pharisees, who were
zealous in paying tithes of "mint and anise and cummin," while they omitted the
weightier matters of the law." "It is used as a spice, both bruised, to mix with
bread, and also boiled, in the various messes and stews which compose an Oriental
banquet." Tristram, Natural History.
Cup
- a wine-cup (Gen. 40:11, 21), various forms of which are found on Assyrian
and Egyptian monuments. All Solomon's drinking vessels were of gold (1 Kings 10:
21). The cups mentioned in the New Testament were made after Roman and Greek models,
and were sometimes of gold (Rev. 17:4).
The
art of divining by means of a cup was practiced in Egypt (Gen. 44:2-17), and in
the East generally.
The "cup
of salvation" (Ps. 116:13) is the cup of thanksgiving for the great salvation.
The "cup of consolation" (Jer. 16:7) refers to the custom of friends sending viands
and wine to console relatives in mourning (Prov. 31:6). In 1 Cor. 10:16, the "cup
of blessing" is contrasted with the "cup of devils" (1 Cor. 10:21). The sacramental
cup is the "cup of blessing," because of blessing pronounced over it (Matt. 26:27;
Luke 22:17). The "portion of the cup" (Ps. 11:6; 16:5) denotes one's condition
of life, prosperous or adverse. A "cup" is also a type of sensual allurement (Jer.
51:7; Prov. 23:31; Rev. 17:4). We read also of the "cup of astonishment," the
"cup of trembling," and the "cup of God's wrath" (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15;
Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:32; Rev. 16:19; comp. Matt. 26:39, 42; John 18:11). The cup
is also the symbol of death (Matt. 16:28; Mark 9:1; Heb. 2:9).
Cup-bearer
- an officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish monarchs.
The cup-bearer of the king of Egypt is mentioned in connection with Joseph's history
(Gen. 40:1-21; 41:9). Rabshakeh (q.v.) was cup-bearer in the Assyrian court (2
Kings 18:17). Nehemiah filled this office to the king of Persia (Neh. 1:11). We
read also of Solomon's cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4).
Curious
arts - (Acts 19:19), magical arts; jugglery practised by the Ephesian conjurers.
Ephesus was noted for its wizard and the "Ephesian spells;" i.e., charms or scraps
of parchment written over with certain formula, which were worn as a safeguard
against all manner of evils. The more important and powerful of these charms were
written out in books which circulated among the exorcists, and were sold at a
great price.
Curse
- denounced by God against the serpent (Gen. 3:14), and against Cain (4:11).
These divine maledictions carried their effect with them. Prophetical curses were
sometimes pronounced by holy men (Gen. 9:25; 49:7; Deut. 27:15; Josh. 6:26). Such
curses are not the consequence of passion or revenge, they are predictions.
No
one on pain of death shall curse father or mother (Ex. 21:17), nor the prince
of his people (22:28), nor the deaf (Lev. 19:14). Cursing God or blaspheming was
punishable by death (Lev. 24:10-16). The words "curse God and die" (R.V., "renounce
God and die"), used by Job's wife (Job 2:9), have been variously interpreted.
Perhaps they simply mean that as nothing but death was expected, God would by
this cursing at once interpose and destroy Job, and so put an end to his sufferings.
Curtain
- (1.) Ten curtains, each twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, made of
fine linen, also eleven made of goat's hair, covered the tabernacle (Ex. 26:1-13;
36:8-17).
(2.) The sacred
curtain, separating the holy of holies from the sanctuary, is designated by a
different Hebrew word (peroketh). It is described as a "veil of blue, and purple,
and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work" (Ex. 26:31; Lev. 16:2; Num.
18:7).
(3.) "Stretcheth out
the heavens as a curtain" (Isa. 40:22), is an expression used with reference to
the veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen over their courts in summer.
According to the prophet, the heavens are spread over our heads as such an awning.
Similar expressions are found in Ps. 104:2l; comp. Isa. 44:24; Job 9:8.
Cush
- black. (1.) A son, probably the eldest, of Ham, and the father of Nimrod
(Gen. 10:8; 1 Chr. 1:10). From him the land of Cush seems to have derived its
name. The question of the precise locality of the land of Cush has given rise
to not a little controversy. The second river of Paradise surrounded the whole
land of Cush (Gen. 2:13, R.V.). The term Cush is in the Old Testament generally
applied to the countries south of the Israelites. It was the southern limit of
Egypt (Ezek. 29:10, A.V. "Ethiopia," Heb. Cush), with which it is generally associated
(Ps. 68:31; Isa. 18:1; Jer. 46:9, etc.). It stands also associated with Elam (Isa.
11:11), with Persia (Ezek. 38:5), and with the Sabeans (Isa. 45:14). From these
facts it has been inferred that Cush included Arabia and the country on the west
coast of the Red Sea. Rawlinson takes it to be the country still known as Khuzi-stan,
on the east side of the Lower Tigris. But there are intimations which warrant
the conclusion that there was also a Cush in Africa, the Ethiopia (so called by
the Greeks) of Africa. Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp. 30:4-6) of it as lying south
of Egypt. It was the country now known to us as Nubia and Abyssinia (Isa. 18:1;
Zeph. 3:10, Heb. Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia is termed Kesh.
The Cushites appear to have spread along extensive tracts, stretching from the
Upper Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period there was a stream
of migration of Cushites "from Ethiopia, properly so called, through Arabia, Babylonia,
and Persia, to Western India." The Hamite races, soon after their arrival in Africa,
began to spread north, east, and west. Three branches of the Cushite or Ethiopian
stock, moving from Western Asia, settled in the regions contiguous to the Persian
Gulf. One branch, called the Cossaeans, settled in the mountainous district on
the east of the Tigris, known afterwards as Susiana; another occupied the lower
regions of the Euphrates and the Tigris; while a third colonized the southern
shores and islands of the gulf, whence they afterwards emigrated to the Mediterranean
and settled on the coast of Palestine as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was a great Cushite
chief. He conquered the Accadians, a Tauranian race, already settled in Mesopotamia,
and founded his kingdom, the Cushites mingling with the Accads, and so forming
the Chaldean nation.
(2.)
A Benjamite of this name is mentioned in the title of Ps. 7. "Cush was probably
a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe, and had sought the friendship of David
for the purpose of 'rewarding evil to him that was at peace with him.'"
Cushan
- probably a poetic or prolonged name of the land of Cush, the Arabian Cush
(Hab. 3:7). Some have, however, supposed this to be the same as Chushan-rishathaim
(Judg. 3:8, 10), i.e., taking the latter part of the name as a title or local
appellation, Chushan "of the two iniquities" (= oppressing Israel, and provoking
them to idolatry), a Mesopotamian king, identified by Rawlinson with Asshur-ris-ilim
(the father of Tiglathpileser I.); but incorrectly, for the empire of Assyria
was not yet founded. He held Israel in bondage for eight years.
Cushite
- (1.) The messenger sent by Joab to David to announce his victory over Absalom
(2 Sam. 18:32).
(2.) The
father of Shelemiah (Jer. 36:14).
(3.)
Son of Gedaliah, and father of the prophet Zephaniah (1:1).
(4.)
Moses married a Cushite woman (Num. 12:1). From this circumstance some have supposed
that Zipporah was meant, and hence that Midian was Cush.
Custom
- a tax imposed by the Romans. The tax-gatherers were termed publicans (q.v.),
who had their stations at the gates of cities, and in the public highways, and
at the place set apart for that purpose, called the "receipt of custom" (Matt.9:
9; Mark 2:14), where they collected the money that was to be paid on certain goods
(Matt.17:25). These publicans were tempted to exact more from the people than
was lawful, and were, in consequence of their extortions, objects of great hatred.
The Pharisees would have no intercourse with them (Matt.5:46, 47; 9:10, 11).
A
tax or tribute (q.v.) of half a shekel was annually paid by every adult Jew for
the temple. It had to be paid in Jewish coin (Matt. 22:17-19; Mark 12:14, 15).
Money-changers (q.v.) were necessary, to enable the Jews who came up to Jerusalem
at the feasts to exchange their foreign coin for Jewish money; but as it was forbidden
by the law to carry on such a traffic for emolument (Deut. 23:19, 20), our Lord
drove them from the temple (Matt. 21:12: Mark 11:15).
Cuthah
- one of the Babylonian cities or districts from which Shalmaneser transplanted
certain colonists to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). Some have conjectured that the "Cutheans"
were identical with the "Cossaeans" who inhabited the hill-country to the north
of the river Choaspes. Cuthah is now identified with Tell Ibrahim, 15 miles north-east
of Babylon.
Cutting
- the flesh in various ways was an idolatrous practice, a part of idol-worship
(Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). The Israelites were commanded not to imitate this
practice (Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1). The tearing of the flesh from grief and
anguish of spirit in mourning for the dead was regarded as a mark of affection
(Jer. 16:6; 41:5; 48:37).
Allusions
are made in Revelation (13:16; 17:5; 19:20) to the practice of printing marks
on the body, to indicate allegiance to a deity. We find also references to it,
through in a different direction, by Paul (Gal. 6; 7) and by Ezekiel (9:4). (See
HAIR.)
Cymbals
- (Heb. tzeltzelim, from a root meaning to "tinkle"), musical instruments,
consisting of two convex pieces of brass one held in each hand, which were clashed
together to produce a loud clanging sound; castanets; "loud cymbals." "Highsounding
cymbals" consisted of two larger plates, one held also in each hand (2 Sam. 6:5;
Ps. 150:5; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:16, 19, 28; 1 Cor. 13:1).
Cypress
- (Heb. tirzah, "hardness"), mentioned only in Isa. 44:14 (R.V., "holm tree").
The oldest Latin version translates this word by ilex, i.e., the evergreen oak,
which may possibly have been the tree intended; but there is great probability
that our Authorized Version is correct in rendering it "cypress." This tree grows
abundantly on the mountains of Hermon. Its wood is hard and fragrant, and very
durable. Its foliage is dark and gloomy. It is an evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens).
"Throughout the East it is used as a funereal tree; and its dark, tall, waving
plumes render it peculiarly appropriate among the tombs."
Cyprus
- one of the largest islands of the Mediterranean, about 148 miles long and
40 broad. It is distant about 60 miles from the Syrian coast. It was the "Chittim"
of the Old Testament (Num. 24:24). The Greek colonists gave it the name of Kypros,
from the cyprus, i.e., the henna (see CAMPHIRE ¯T0000701), which grew on this
island. It was originally inhabited by Phoenicians. In B.C. 477 it fell under
the dominion of the Greeks; and became a Roman province B.C. 58. In ancient times
it was a centre of great commercial activity. Corn and wine and oil were produced
here in the greatest perfection. It was rich also in timber and in mineral wealth.
It is first mentioned in
the New Testament (Acts 4:36) as the native place of Barnabas. It was the scene
of Paul's first missionary labours (13:4-13), when he and Barnabas and John Mark
were sent forth by the church of Antioch. It was afterwards visited by Barnabas
and Mark alone (15:39). Mnason, an "old disciple," probaly one of the converts
of the day of Pentecost belonging to this island, is mentioned (21:16). It is
also mentioned in connection with the voyages of Paul (Acts 21:3; 27:4). After
being under the Turks for three hundred years, it was given up to the British
Government in 1878.
Cyrene
- a city (now Tripoli) in Upper Libya, North Africa, founded by a colony of
Greeks (B.C. 630). It contained latterly a large number of Jews, who were introduced
into the city by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, because he thought they would contribute
to the security of the place. They increased in number and influence; and we are
thus prepared for the frequent references to them in connection with the early
history of Christianity. Simon, who bore our Lord's cross, was a native of this
place (Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21). Jews from Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pentecost
(Acts 2:10); and Cyrenian Jews had a synagogue at Jerusalem (6:9). Converts belonging
to Cyrene contributed to the formation of the first Gentile church at Antioch
(11:20). Among "the prophets and teachers" who "ministered to the Lord at Antioch"
was Lucius of Cyrene (13:1).
Cyrenius
- the Grecized form of Quirinus. His full name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinus.
Recent historical investigation has proved that Quirinus was governor of Cilicia,
which was annexed to Syria at the time of our Lord's birth. Cilicia, which he
ruled, being a province of Syria, he is called the governor, which he was de jure,
of Syria. Some ten years afterwards he was appointed governor of Syria for the
second time. During his tenure of office, at the time of our Lord's birth (Luke
2:2), a "taxing" (R.V., "enrolment;" i.e., a registration) of the people was "first
made;" i.e., was made for the first time under his government. (See TAXING.)
Cyrus
- (Heb. Ko'resh), the celebrated "King of Persia" (Elam) who was conqueror
of Babylon, and issued the decree of liberation to the Jews (Ezra 1:1, 2). He
was the son of Cambyses, the prince of Persia, and was born about B.C. 599. In
the year B.C. 559 he became king of Persia, the kingdom of Media being added to
it partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great military leader, bent on universal conquest.
Babylon fell before his army (B.C. 538) on the night of Belshazzar's feast (Dan.
5:30), and then the ancient dominion of Assyria was also added to his empire (cf.,
"Go up, O Elam", Isa.21:2).
Hitherto
the great kings of the earth had only oppressed the Jews. Cyrus was to them as
a "shepherd" (Isa. 44:28; 45:1). God employed him in doing service to his ancient
people. He may posibly have gained, through contact with the Jews, some knowledge
of their religion.
The "first
year of Cyrus" (Ezra 1:1) is not the year of his elevation to power over the Medes,
nor over the Persians, nor the year of the fall of Babylon, but the year succeeding
the two years during which "Darius the Mede" was viceroy in Babylon after its
fall. At this time only (B.C. 536) Cyrus became actual king over Palestine, which
became a part of his Babylonian empire. The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding
of Jerusalem marked a great epoch in the history of the Jewish people (2 Chr.
36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-4; 4:3; 5:13-17; 6:3-5).
This
decree was discovered "at Achmetha [R.V. marg., "Ecbatana"], in the palace that
is in the province of the Medes" (Ezra 6:2). A chronicle drawn up just after the
conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, gives the history of the reign of Nabonidus (Nabunahid),
the last king of Babylon, and of the fall of the Babylonian empire. In B.C. 538
there was a revolt in Southern Babylonia, while the army of Cyrus entered the
country from the north. In June the Babylonian army was completely defeated at
Opis, and immediately afterwards Sippara opened its gates to the conqueror. Gobryas
(Ugbaru), the governor of Kurdistan, was then sent to Babylon, which surrendered
"without fighting," and the daily services in the temples continued without a
break. In October, Cyrus himself arrived, and proclaimed a general amnesty, which
was communicated by Gobryas to "all the province of Babylon," of which he had
been made governor. Meanwhile, Nabonidus, who had concealed himself, was captured,
but treated honourably; and when his wife died, Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conducted
the funeral. Cyrus now assumed the title of "king of Babylon," claimed to be the
descendant of the ancient kings, and made rich offerings to the temples. At the
same time he allowed the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia
to return to their old homes, carrying with them the images of their gods. Among
these populations were the Jews, who, as they had no images, took with them the
sacred vessels of the temple.
Daberath
- pasture, a Levitical town of Issachar (Josh. 19:12; 21:28), near the border
of Zebulum. It is the modern small village of Deburich, at the base of Mount Tabor.
Tradition has incorrectly made it the scene of the miracle of the cure of the
lunatic child (Matt. 17:14).
Daemon
- the Greek form, rendered "devil" in the Authorized Version of the New Testament.
Daemons are spoken of as spiritual beings (Matt. 8:16; 10:1; 12:43-45) at enmity
with God, and as having a certain power over man (James 2:19; Rev. 16:14). They
recognize our Lord as the Son of God (Matt. 8:20; Luke 4:41). They belong to the
number of those angels that "kept not their first estate," "unclean spirits,"
"fallen angels," the angels of the devil (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7-9). They are
the "principalities and powers" against which we must "wrestle" (Eph. 6:12).
Daemoniac
- one "possessed with a devil." In the days of our Lord and his apostles,
evil spirits, "daemons," were mysteriously permitted by God to exercise an influence
both over the souls and bodies of men, inflicting dumbness (Matt. 9:32), blindness
(12:22), epilepsy (Mark 9:17-27), insanity (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1-5). Daemoniacs
are frequently distinguished from those who are afflicted with ordinary bodily
maladies (Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18; Luke 6:17, 18). The daemons speak in their own
persons (Matt. 8:29; Mark 1:23, 24; 5:7). This influence is clearly distinguished
from the ordinary power of corruption and of temptation over men. In the daemoniac
his personality seems to be destroyed, and his actions, words, and even thoughts
to be overborne by the evil spirit (Mark, l.c.; Acts 19:15).
Dagon
- little fish; diminutive from dag = a fish, the fish-god; the national god
of the Philistines (Judg. 16:23). This idol had the body of a fish with the head
and hands of a man. It was an Assyrio-Babylonian deity, the worship of which was
introduced among the Philistines through Chaldea. The most famous of the temples
of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg. 16:23-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1-7). (See FISH.)
Dagon's
house - (1 Sam. 5:2), or Beth-dagon, as elsewhere rendered (Josh.15: 41; 19:27),
was the sanctuary or temple of Dagon.
The
Beth-dagon of Josh. 15:41 was one of the cities of the tribe of Judah, in the
lowland or plain which stretches westward. It has not been identified.
The
Beth-dagon of Josh. 19:27 was one of the border cities of Asher.
That
of 1 Chr. 10:10 was in the western half-tribe of Manasseh, where the Philistines,
after their victory at Gilboa, placed Saul's head in the temple of their god.
(Comp. 1 Sam. 31:8-13).
Daily
sacrifice - (Dan. 8:12; 11:31; 12:11), a burnt offering of two lambs of a
year old, which were daily sacrificed in the name of the whole Israelitish people
upon the great altar, the first at dawn of day, and the second at evening (Dan.
9:21), or more correctly, "between the two evenings." (See SACRIFICE.)
Dale,
the king's - the name of a valley, the alternative for "the valley of Shaveh"
(q.v.), near the Dead Sea, where the king of Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14:17). Some
have identified it with the southern part of the valley of Jehoshaphat, where
Absalom reared his family monument (2 Sam. 18:18).
Dalmanutha
- a place on the west of the Sea of Galilee, mentioned only in Mark 8:10.
In the parallel passage it is said that Christ came "into the borders of Magdala"
(Matt. 15:39). It is plain, then, that Dalmanutha was near Magdala, which was
probably the Greek name of one of the many Migdols (i.e., watch-towers) on the
western side of the lake of Gennesaret. It has been identified in the ruins of
a village about a mile from Magdala, in the little open valley of 'Ain-el-Barideh,
"the cold fountain," called el-Mejdel, possibly the "Migdal-el" of Josh. 19:38.
Dalmatia
- a mountainous country on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, a part of the
Roman province of Illyricum. It still bears its ancient name. During Paul's second
imprisonment at Rome, Titus left him to visit Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4:10) for some
unknown purpose. Paul had himself formerly preached in that region (Rom. 15:19).
The present Emperor of Austria
bears, among his other titles, that of "King of Dalmatia."
Damaris
- a heifer, an Athenian woman converted to Christianity under the preaching
of Paul (Acts 17:34). Some have supposed that she may have been the wife of Dionysius
the Areopagite.
Damascus
- activity, the most ancient of Oriental cities; the capital of Syria (Isa.
7:8; 17:3); situated about 133 miles to the north of Jerusalem. Its modern name
is Esh-Sham; i.e., "the East."
The
situation of this city is said to be the most beautiful of all Western Asia. It
is mentioned among the conquests of the Egyptian king Thothmes III. (B.C. 1500),
and in the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400).
It
is first mentioned in Scripture in connection with Abraham's victory over the
confederate kings under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:15). It was the native place of
Abraham's steward (15:2). It is not again noticed till the time of David, when
"the Syrians of Damascus came to succour Hadadezer" (q.v.), 2 Sam. 8:5; 1 Chr.
18:5. In the reign of Solomon, Rezon became leader of a band who revolted from
Hadadezer (1 Kings 11:23), and betaking themselves to Damascus, settled there
and made their leader king. There was a long war, with varying success, between
the Israelites and Syrians, who at a later period became allies of Israel against
Judah (2 Kings 15:37).
The
Syrians were at length subdued by the Assyrians, the city of Damascus was taken
and destroyed, and the inhabitants carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings 16:7-9;
comp. Isa. 7:8). In this, prophecy was fulfilled (Isa. 17:1; Amos 1:4; Jer. 49:24).
The kingdom of Syria remained a province of Assyria till the capture of Nineveh
by the Medes (B.C. 625), when it fell under the conquerors. After passing through
various vicissitudes, Syria was invaded by the Romans (B.C. 64), and Damascus
became the seat of the government of the province. In A.D. 37 Aretas, the king
of Arabia, became master of Damascus, having driven back Herod Antipas.
This
city is memorable as the scene of Saul's conversion (Acts 9:1-25). The street
called "Straight," in which Judas lived, in whose house Saul was found by Ananias,
is known by the name Sultany, or "Queen's Street." It is the principal street
of the city. Paul visited Damascus again on his return from Arabia (Gal. 1:16,
17). Christianity was planted here as a centre (Acts 9:20), from which it spread
to the surrounding regions.
In
A.D. 634 Damascus was conquered by the growing Mohammedan power. In A.D. 1516
it fell under the dominion of the Turks, its present rulers. It is now the largest
city in Asiatic Turkey. Christianity has again found a firm footing within its
walls.
Damnation
- in Rom. 13:2, means "condemnation," which comes on those who withstand God's
ordinance of magistracy. This sentence of condemnation comes not from the magistrate,
but from God, whose authority is thus resisted.
In
1 Cor. 11:29 (R.V., "judgment") this word means condemnation, in the sense of
exposure to severe temporal judgements from God, as the following verse explains.
In Rom. 14:23 the word "damned"
means "condemned" by one's own conscience, as well as by the Word of God. The
apostle shows here that many things which are lawful are not expedient; and that
in using our Christian liberty the question should not simply be, Is this course
I follow lawful? but also, Can I follow it without doing injury to the spiritual
interests of a brother in Christ? He that "doubteth", i.e., is not clear in his
conscience as to "meats", will violate his conscience "if he eat," and in eating
is condemned; and thus one ought not so to use his liberty as to lead one who
is "weak" to bring upon himself this condemnation.
Dan
- a judge. (1.) The fifth son of Jacob. His mother was Bilhah, Rachel's maid
(Gen. 30:6, "God hath judged me", Heb. dananni). The blessing pronounced on him
by his father was, "Dan shall judge his people" (49:16), probably in allusion
to the judgeship of Samson, who was of the tribe of Dan.
The
tribe of Dan had their place in the march through the wilderness on the north
side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:25, 31; 10:25). It was the last of the tribes to
receive a portion in the Land of Promise. Its position and extent are described
in Josh. 19:40-48.
The territory
of Dan extended from the west of that of Ephraim and Benjamin to the sea. It was
a small territory, but was very fertile. It included in it, among others, the
cities of Lydda, Ekron, and Joppa, which formed its northern boundary. But this
district was too limited. "Squeezed into the narrow strip between the mountains
and the sea, its energies were great beyond its numbers." Being pressed by the
Amorites and the Philistines, whom they were unable to conquer, they longed for
a wider space. They accordingly sent out five spies from two of their towns, who
went north to the sources of the Jordan, and brought back a favourable report
regarding that region. "Arise," they said, "be not slothful to go, and to possess
the land," for it is "a place where there is no want of any thing that is in the
earth" (Judg. 18:10). On receiving this report, 600 Danites girded on their weapons
of war, and taking with them their wives and their children, marched to the foot
of Hermon, and fought against Leshem, and took it from the Sidonians, and dwelt
therein, and changed the name of the conquered town to Dan (Josh. 19:47). This
new city of Dan became to them a new home, and was wont to be spoken of as the
northern limit of Palestine, the length of which came to be denoted by the expression
"from Dan to Beersheba", i.e., about 144 miles.
"But
like Lot under a similar temptation, they seem to have succumbed to the evil influences
around them, and to have sunk down into a condition of semi-heathenism from which
they never emerged. The mounds of ruins which mark the site of the city show that
it covered a considerable extent of ground. But there remains no record of any
noble deed wrought by the degenerate tribe. Their name disappears from the roll-book
of the natural and the spiritual Israel.", Manning's Those Holy Fields.
This
old border city was originally called Laish. Its modern name is Tell el-Kady,
"Hill of the Judge." It stands about four miles below Caesarea Philippi, in the
midst of a region of surpassing richness and beauty.
(2.)
This name occurs in Ezek 27:19, Authorize Version; but the words there, "Dan also,"
should be simply, as in the Revised Version, "Vedan," an Arabian city, from which
various kinds of merchandise were brought to Tyre. Some suppose it to have been
the city of Aden in Arabia. (See MAHANEH-DAN ¯T0002375.)
Dance
- found in Judg. 21:21, 23; Ps. 30:11; 149:3; 150:4; Jer. 31:4, 13, etc.,
as the translation of hul, which points to the whirling motion of Oriental
sacred dances. It is the rendering of a word (rakad') which means to skip or leap
for joy, in Eccl. 3:4; Job 21:11; Isa. 13:21, etc.
In
the New Testament it is in like manner the translation of different Greek words,
circular motion (Luke 15:25); leaping up and down in concert (Matt. 11:17), and
by a single person (Matt. 14:6).
It
is spoken of as symbolical of rejoicing (Eccl. 3:4. Comp. Ps. 30:11; Matt. 11:
17). The Hebrews had their sacred dances expressive of joy and thanksgiving, when
the performers were usually females (Ex. 15:20; 1 Sam. 18:6).
The
ancient dance was very different from that common among Western nations. It was
usually the part of the women only (Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; comp. 5:1). Hence
the peculiarity of David's conduct in dancing before the ark of the Lord (2 Sam.
6:14). The women took part in it with their timbrels. Michal should, in accordance
with the example of Miriam and others, have herself led the female choir, instead
of keeping aloof on the occasion and "looking through the window." David led the
choir "uncovered", i.e., wearing only the ephod or linen tunic. He thought only
of the honour of God, and forgot himself.
From
being reserved for occasions of religious worship and festivity, it came gradually
to be practised in common life on occasions of rejoicing (Jer. 31:4). The sexes
among the Jews always danced separately. The daughter of Herodias danced alone
(Matt. 14:6).
Daniel
- God is my judge, or judge of God. (1.) David's second son, "born unto him
in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess" (1 Chr. 3:1). He is called also Chileab
(2 Sam. 3:3).
(2.) One of
the four great prophets, although he is not once spoken of in the Old Testament
as a prophet. His life and prophecies are recorded in the Book of Daniel. He was
descended from one of the noble families of Judah (Dan. 1:3), and was probably
born in Jerusalem about B.C. 623, during the reign of Josiah. At the first deportation
of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (the kingdom of Israel had come to an end nearly
a century before), or immediately after his victory over the Egyptians at the
second battle of Carchemish, in the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (B.C.
606), Daniel and other three noble youths were carried off to Babylon, along with
part of the vessels of the temple. There he was obliged to enter into the service
of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with the custom of the age received
the Chaldean name of Belteshazzar, i.e., "prince of Bel," or "Bel protect the
king!" His residence in Babylon was very probably in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar,
now identified with a mass of shapeless mounds called the Kasr, on the right bank
of the river.
His training
in the schools of the wise men in Babylon (Dan. 1:4) was to fit him for service
to the empire. He was distinguished during this period for his piety and his stict
observance of the Mosaic law (1:8-16), and gained the confidence and esteem of
those who were over him. His habit of attention gained during his education in
Jerusalem enabled him soon to master the wisdom and learning of the Chaldeans,
and even to excel his compeers.
At
the close of his three years of discipline and training in the royal schools,
Daniel was distinguished for his proficiency in the "wisdom" of his day, and was
brought out into public life. He soon became known for his skill in the interpretation
of dreams (1:17; 2:14), and rose to the rank of governor of the province of Babylon,
and became "chief of the governors" (Chald. Rab-signin) over all the wise men
of Babylon. He made known and also interpreted Nebuchadnezzar's dream; and many
years afterwards, when he was now an old man, amid the alarm and consternation
of the terrible night of Belshazzar's impious feast, he was called in at the instance
of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret
the mysterious handwriting on the wall. He was rewarded with a purple robe and
elevation to the rank of "third ruler." The place of "second ruler" was held by
Belshazzar as associated with his father, Nabonidus, on the throne (5:16). Daniel
interpreted the handwriting, and "in that night was Belshazzar the king of the
Chaldeans slain."
After the
taking of Babylon, Cyrus, who was now master of all Asia from India to the Dardanelles,
placed Darius (q.v.), a Median prince, on the throne, during the two years of
whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the "three presidents" of the empire,
and was thus practically at the head of affairs, no doubt interesting himself
in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom he had at last the happiness
of seeing restored to their own land, although he did not return with them, but
remained still in Babylon. His fidelity to God exposed him to persecution, and
he was cast into a den of lions, but was miraculously delivered; after which Darius
issued a decree enjoining reverence for "the God of Daniel" (6:26). He "prospered
in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian," whom he probably
greatly influenced in the matter of the decree which put an end to the Captivity
(B.C. 536).
He had a series
of prophetic visions vouch-safed to him which opened up the prospect of a glorious
future for the people of God, and must have imparted peace and gladness to his
spirit in his old age as he waited on at his post till the "end of the days."
The time and circumstances of his death are not recorded. He probably died at
Susa, about eighty-five years of age.
Ezekiel,
with whom he was contemporary, mentions him as a pattern of righteousness (14:14,
20) and wisdom (28:3). (See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.)
Daniel,
Book of - is ranked by the Jews in that division of their Bible called the
Hagiographa (Heb. Khethubim). (See BIBLE.) It consists
of two distinct parts. The first part, consisting of the first six chapters, is
chiefly historical; and the second part, consisting of the remaining six chapters,
is chiefly prophetical.
The
historical part of the book treats of the period of the Captivity. Daniel is "the
historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events
for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees
that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to intervene
between Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or (more strictly)
to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse
in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword carried he [i.e.,
Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons
until the reign of the kingdom of Persia'" (2 Chr. 36:20).
The
prophetical part consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetical communication.
The genuineness of this book
has been much disputed, but the arguments in its favour fully establish its claims.
(1.) We have the testimony of Christ (Matt. 24:15; 25:31; 26:64) and his apostles
(1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for its authority; and (2) the important testimony
of Ezekiel (14:14, 20; 28:3). (3.) The character and records of the book are also
entirely in harmony with the times and circumstances in which the author lived.
(4.) The linguistic character of the book is, moreover, just such as might be
expected. Certain portions (Dan. 2:4; 7) are written in the Chaldee language;
and the portions written in Hebrew are in a style and form having a close affinity
with the later books of the Old Testament, especially with that of Ezra. The writer
is familiar both with the Hebrew and the Chaldee, passing from the one to the
other just as his subject required. This is in strict accordance with the position
of the author and of the people for whom his book was written. That Daniel is
the writer of this book is also testified to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2;
9:2; 10:1, 2; 12:4, 5). (See BELSHAZZAR.)
Dan-jaan
- woodland Dan, a place probably somewhere in the direction of Dan, near the
sources of the Jordan (2 Sam. 24:6). The LXX. and the Vulgate read "Dan-ja'ar",
i.e., "Dan in the forest."
Dannah
- murmuring, a city (Josh. 15:49) in the mountains of Judah about 8 miles
south-west of Hebron.
Darda
- pearl of wisdom, one of the four who were noted for their wisdom, but whom
Solomon excelled (1 Kings 4:31).
Daric
- in the Revised Version of 1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72, where
the Authorized Version has "dram." It is the rendering of the Hebrew darkemon
and the Greek dareikos. It was a gold coin, bearing the figure of a Persian King
with his crown and armed with bow and arrow. It was current among the Jews after
their return from Babylon, i.e., while under the Persian domination. It weighed
about 128 grains troy, and was of the value of about one guinea or rather more
of our money. It is the first coin mentioned in Scripture, and is the oldest that
history makes known to us.
Darius
- the holder or supporter, the name of several Persian kings. (1.) Darius
the Mede (Dan. 11:1), "the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes" (9:1).
On the death of Belshazzar the Chaldean he "received the kingdom" of Babylon as
viceroy from Cyrus. During his brief reign (B.C. 538-536) Daniel was promoted
to the highest dignity (Dan. 6:1, 2); but on account of the malice of his enemies
he was cast into the den of lions. After his miraculous escape, a decree was issued
by Darius enjoining "reverence for the God of Daniel" (6:26). This king was probably
the "Astyages" of the Greek historians. Nothing can, however, be with certainty
affirmed regarding him. Some are of opinion that the name "Darius" is simply a
name of office, equivalent to "governor," and that the "Gobryas" of the inscriptions
was the person intended by the name.
(2.)
Darius, king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, of the royal family of the Achaemenidae.
He did not immediately succeed Cyrus on the throne. There were two intermediate
kings, viz., Cambyses (the Ahasuerus of Ezra), the son of Cyrus, who reigned from
B.C. 529-522, and was succeeded by a usurper named Smerdis, who occupied the throne
only ten months, and was succeeded by this Darius (B.C. 521-486). Smerdis was
a Margian, and therefore had no sympathy with Cyrus and Cambyses in the manner
in which they had treated the Jews. He issued a decree prohibiting the restoration
of the temple and of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:17-22). But soon after his death and the
accession of Darius, the Jews resumed their work, thinking that the edict of Smerdis
would be now null and void, as Darius was in known harmony with the religious
policy of Cyrus. The enemies of the Jews lost no time in bringing the matter under
the notice of Darius, who caused search to be made for the decree of Cyrus (q.v.).
It was not found at Babylon, but at Achmetha (Ezra 6:2); and Darius forthwith
issued a new decree, giving the Jews full liberty to prosecute their work, at
the same time requiring the Syrian satrap and his subordinates to give them all
needed help. It was with the army of this king that the Greeks fought the famous
battle of Marathon (B.C. 490). During his reign the Jews enjoyed much peace and
prosperity. He was succeeded by Ahasuerus, known to the Greeks as Xerxes, who
reigned for twenty-one years.
(3.)
Darius the Persian (Neh. 12:22) was probably the Darius II. (Ochus or Nothus)
of profane history, the son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who was the son and successor
of Ahasuerus (Xerxes). There are some, however, who think that the king here meant
was Darius III. (Codomannus), the antagonist of Alexander the Great (B.C. 336-331).
Darkness
- The plague (the ninth) of darkness in Egypt (Ex. 10:21) is described as
darkness "which may be felt." It covered "all the land of Egypt," so that "they
saw not one another." It did not extend to the land of Goshen (ver. 23).
When
Jesus hung upon the cross (Matt. 27:45; Luke 23:44), from the "sixth hour there
was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour."
On
Mount Sinai, Moses (Ex. 20:21) "drew near unto the thick darkness where God was."
This was the "thick cloud upon the mount" in which Jehovah was when he spake unto
Moses there. The Lord dwelt in the cloud upon the mercy-seat (1 Kings 8:12), the
cloud of glory. When the psalmist (Ps. 97:2) describes the inscrutable nature
of God's workings among the sons of men, he says, "Clouds and darkness are round
about him." God dwells in thick darkness.
Darkness
(Isa. 13:9, 10; Matt. 24:29) also is a symbol of the judgments that attend on
the coming of the Lord. It is a symbol of misery and adversity (Job 18:6; Ps.
107:10; Isa. 8:22; Ezek. 30:18). The "day of darkness" in Joel 2:2, caused by
clouds of locusts, is a symbol of the obscurity which overhangs all divine proceedings.
"Works of darkness" are impure actions (Eph. 5:11). "Outer darkness" refers to
the darkness of the streets in the East, which are never lighted up by any public
or private lamps after nightfall, in contrast with the blaze of cheerful light
in the house. It is also a symbol of ignorance (Isa. 9:2; 60:2; Matt. 6:23) and
of death (Job 10:21; 17:13).
Darling
- Ps. 22:20; 35:17) means an "only one."
Dart
- an instrument of war; a light spear. "Fiery darts" (Eph. 6:16) are so called
in allusion to the habit of discharging darts from the bow while they are on fire
or armed with some combustible material. Arrows are compared to lightning (Deut.
32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 120:4).
Date
- the fruit of a species of palm (q.v.), the Phoenix dactilifera. This was
a common tree in Palestine (Joel 1:12; Neh. 8:15). Palm branches were carried
by the Jews on festive occasions, and especially at the feast of Tabernacles (Lev.
23:40; Neh. 8:15).
Dathan
- welled; belonging to a fountain, a son of Eliab, a Reubenite, who joined
Korah (q.v.) in his conspiracy, and with his accomplices was swallowed up by an
earthquake (Num. 16:1; 26:9; Deut. 11:6; Ps. 106:17).
Daughter
- This word, besides its natural and proper sense, is used to designate, (1.)
A niece or any female descendant (Gen. 20:12; 24:48; 28:6). (2.) Women as natives
of a place, or as professing the religion of a place; as, "the daughters of Zion"
(Isa. 3:16), "daughters of the Philistines" (2 Sam. 1:20). (3.) Small towns and
villages lying around a city are its "daughters," as related to the metropolis
or mother city. Tyre is in this sense called the daughter of Sidon (Isa. 23:12).
(4.) The people of Jerusalem are spoken of as "the daughters of Zion" (Isa. 37:22).
(5.) The daughters of a tree are its boughs (Gen. 49:22). (6.) The "daughters
of music" (Eccl. 12:4) are singing women.
David
- beloved, the eighth and youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His
father seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother's name is not recorded.
Some think she was the Nahash of 2 Sam. 17:25. As to his personal appearance,
we only know that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face (1 Sam.
16:12; 17:42).
His early
occupation was that of tending his father's sheep on the uplands of Judah. From
what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time,
when thus engaged, with his shepherd's flute, while he drank in the many lessons
taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. His first recorded exploits
were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions that with his
own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when they came out against his
flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his club (1 Sam. 17:34, 35).
While David, in the freshness
of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit
to Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction (1 Sam. 16:1-13).
There he offered up sacrifice, and called the elders of Israel and Jesse's family
to the sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he failed to discover
the one he sought. David was sent for, and the prophet immediately recognized
him as the chosen of God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the
ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured
on his head the anointing oil. David went back again to his shepherd life, but
"the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit
of the Lord departed from Saul" (1 Sam. 16:13, 14).
Not
long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit
of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played before the
king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to entertain great
affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to Bethlehem. But he
soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel were
in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem;
and David was sent by his father with provisions for his three brothers, who were
then fighting on the side of the king. On his arrival in the camp of Israel, David
(now about twenty years of age) was made aware of the state of matters when the
champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David
took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a stone "out of the brook,"
which struck the giant's forehead, so that he fell senseless to the ground. David
then ran and slew him, and cut off his head with his own sword (1 Sam. 17). The
result was a great victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the
gates of Gath and Ekron.
David's
popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy (1 Sam.
18:6-16), which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward
him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Sam. 18-30). The deep-laid
plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David "prospered
exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the more to
the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul's son, between whom and David
a life-long warm friendship was formed.
A
fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Sam. 19:12-18)
to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who
were there under Samuel's training. It is supposed by some that the sixth, seventh,
and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles
from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive had gone,
and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort to
bring his father to a better state of mind toward David (1 Sam. 20), who, being
made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight to a distance. We
accordingly find him first at Nob (21:1-9) and then at Gath, the chief city of
the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit him into his service,
as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now betook himself to the
stronghold of Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chr. 12:8-18). Here in a short time 400 men gathered
around him and acknowledged him as their leader. It was at this time that David,
amid the harassment and perils of his position, cried, "Oh that one would give
me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;" when three of his heroes broke
through the lines of the Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed
(2 Sam. 23:13-17), but which he would not drink.
In
his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave orders for
the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore a linen ephod",
to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by Doeg the Edomite.
The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech,
the only one who escaped. Comp. Ps. 52.
Hearing
that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the Philistines,
David with his men relieved it (1 Sam. 23:1-14); and then, for fear of Saul, he
fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Comp. Ps. 31. While encamped
there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who
spoke to him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now parted never to meet
again. Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped from him at this
time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the
Dead Sea (1 Sam. 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued him with his army, narrowly
escaped, through the generous forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by
what David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him, and David betook
himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he maintained himself by contributions
gathered from the district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal and
his wife Abigail (1 Sam. 25), whom David married after Nabal's death.
Saul
again went forth (1 Sam. 26) in pursuit of David, who had hid himself "in the
hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a
second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing shame
and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting his elevation
to the throne.
Fighting against
Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to place through fear of
Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines (1 Sam. 27). He was
welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. Here David lived
among his followers for some time as an independent chief engaged in frequent
war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah.
Achish
summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the lords of the
Philistines were suspicious of David's loyalty, and therefore he was sent back
to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and burnt during
his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites, and completely
routed them. On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul's death (2 Sam.
1). An Amalekite brought Saul's crown and bracelet and laid them at his feet.
David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated
in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy, the most beautiful
of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son"
(2 Sam. 1:18-27). It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to be taught to the
children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them.
"Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.).
David
king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine direction
(2 Sam. 2:1-4). There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed
as king. He was now about thirty years of age.
But
his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul's only
remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then
began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two opposing armies,
led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took place at the pool
of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other encounters, however, between
Israel and Judah followed (2 Sam. 3:1, 5), but still success was on the side of
David. For the space of seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner
now sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement; but was treacherously
put to death by Joab in revenge for his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon
(3:22-39). This was greatly to David's regret. He mourned for the death of Abner.
Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites
of Beeroth; and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel
(4:1-12).
David king over
all Israel (2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Chr. 11:1-3). The elders of Israel now repaired to
Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom the
greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over all Israel, and sought
out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his
empire. At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the stronghold", on the hill
of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the Jebusites, and made it Israel's
capital, and established here his residence, and afterwards built for himself
a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The Philistines, who had for some time
observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but were defeated in battle
at a place afterwards called, in remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again
they invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He thus delivered
Israel from their enemies.
David
now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital (2 Sam. 6).
It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem,
where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines had sent
it home (1 Sam. 6; 7). In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was a divine
ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark, Num. 4), who had put forth
his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being conveyed shook
by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed
the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three months
David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Comp. Ps. 24.
Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the purpose.
About seventy years had passed since it had stood in the tabernacle at Shiloh.
The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now (1
Chr. 16) carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem,
along with Abiathar the high priest. A new religious era began. The service of
praise was for the first time introduced into public worship. Zion became henceforth
"God's holy hill."
David's
wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly extended and strengthened
his kingdom (2 Sam. 8). In a few years the whole territory from the Euphrates
to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to Thapsacus on the east, was
under his sway (2 Sam. 8:3-13; 10).
David's
fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a vast empire,
and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of
all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the sin of adultery
(2 Sam. 11:2-27). It has been noted as characteristic of the Bible that while
his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad story of his fall
is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore recorded. This crime,
in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder. Uriah, whom
he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the corps of heros (23:39),
was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest battle" at the siege of Rabbah,
in order that he might be put to death. Nathan the prophet (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 12:1-23)
was sent by God to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty monarch.
He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second
and fifty-first Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual
recovery.
Bathsheba became
his wife after Uriah's death. Her first-born son died, according to the word of
the prophet. She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon, and who
ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Sam. 12:24, 25).
Peace.
After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the idea of building
a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution,
because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan to him with a gracious
message (2 Sam. 7:1-16). On receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent
where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart in words
of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of the temple was reserved for his
son Solomon, who would be a man of peace (1 Chr. 22:9; 28:3).
A
cloudy evening. Hitherto David's carrer had been one of great prosperity and success.
Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam
of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Sam. 13). This was the
beginning of the disasters of his later years. After two years Absalom terribly
avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This brought sore trouble
to David's heart. Absalom, afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur
beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when he was brought back through
the intrigue of Joab (2 Sam. 14).
After
this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years' famine (2 Sam. 21:1-14).
This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a punishment
for David's sinful pride in numbering the people (2 Sam. 24), in which no fewer
than 70,000 perished in the space of three days.
Rebellion
of Absalom. The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the incident of
Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census,
and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the feeling of jealously
that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes against David. Absalom,
taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually gained over the people,
and at length openly rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne. Ahithophel
was Absalom's chief counsellor. The revolt began in Hebron, the capital of Judah.
Absalom was there proclaimed king. David was now in imminent danger, and he left
Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:13-20), and once more became a fugitive. It was a momentous
day in Israel. The incidents of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater
than of any other day in Old Testament history. David fled with his followers
to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out. After a
few weeks the rival armies were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array
at the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:1-8). Absalom's army was defeated, and himself
put to death by the hand of Joab (9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious
son filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief. He "went up to the
chamber over the gate, and wept" (33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry,
"Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" Peace was now restored,
and David returned to Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy
dispute arose between the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43). Sheba,
a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah,
and was there put to death, and so the revolt came to an end.
The
end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, ten
comparatively peaceful years of David's life passed away. During those years he
seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every kind
for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor to build
(1 Chr. 22; 28; 29), a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and
of glory throughout all countries" (22:5). The exciting and laborious life he
had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had left him
an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was now drawing
to its close. A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be his successor.
Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the "Fuller's spring,"
in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision
on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of Adonijah's party
failed. Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on
his father's throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David's last words are a grand utterance,
revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious
covenant promises (2 Sam. 23:1-7).
After
a reign of forty years and six months (2 Sam. 5:5; 1 Chr. 3:4) David died (B.C.
1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of David." His
tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion.
Both
in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the Messiah
(1 Sam. 16:13). The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the "Psalms of
David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor (about eighty
psalms) to the collection. (See PSALMS.)
"The
greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He had lived in harmony with both
the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government
had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy. The nation had not
been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of its ancient
liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to all (2 Sam.
8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin besides, had been
bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried
worth. He had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a half at
Hebron (2 Sam. 5:5). Israel at his accession had reached the lowest point of national
depression; its new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by the
Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with dominions like those of
Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solomon was already, before his father's death,
owned from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red
Sea.", Geikie's Hours etc., iii.
David,
City of - (1.) David took from the Jebusites the fortress of Mount Zion. He
"dwelt in the fort, and called it the city of David" (1 Chr. 11:7). This was the
name afterwards given to the castle and royal palace on Mount Zion, as distinguished
from Jerusalem generally (1 Kings 3:1; 8:1), It was on the south-west side of
Jerusalem, opposite the temple mount, with which it was connected by a bridge
over the Tyropoeon valley.
(2)
Bethlehem is called the "city of David" (Luke 2:4, 11), because it was David's
birth-place and early home (1 Sam. 17:12).
Day
- The Jews reckoned the day from sunset to sunset (Lev. 23:32). It was originally
divided into three parts (Ps. 55:17). "The heat of the day" (1 Sam. 11:11; Neh.
7:3) was at our nine o'clock, and "the cool of the day" just before sunset (Gen.
3:8). Before the Captivity the Jews divided the night into three watches, (1)
from sunset to midnight (Lam. 2:19); (2) from midnight till the cock-crowing (Judg.
7:19); and (3) from the cock-crowing till sunrise (Ex. 14:24). In the New Testament
the division of the Greeks and Romans into four watches was adopted (Mark 13:35).
(See WATCHES.)
The
division of the day by hours is first mentioned in Dan. 3:6, 15; 4:19; 5:5. This
mode of reckoning was borrowed from the Chaldeans. The reckoning of twelve hours
was from sunrise to sunset, and accordingly the hours were of variable length
(John 11:9).
The word "day"
sometimes signifies an indefinite time (Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22:5; Heb. 3:8, etc.).
In Job 3:1 it denotes a birthday, and in Isa. 2:12, Acts 17:31, and 2 Tim. 1:18,
the great day of final judgment.
Day's
journey - The usual length of a day's journey in the East, on camel or horseback,
in six or eight hours, is about 25 or 30 miles. The "three days' journey" mentioned
in Ex. 3:18 is simply a journey which would occupy three days in going and returning.
Daysman
- an umpire or arbiter or judge (Job 9:33). This word is formed from the Latin
diem dicere, i.e., to fix a day for hearing a cause. Such an one is empowered
by mutual consent to decide the cause, and to "lay his hand", i.e., to impose
his authority, on both, and enforce his sentence.
Dayspring
- (Job 38:12; Luke 1:78), the dawn of the morning; daybreak. (Comp. Isa. 60:1,
2; Mal. 4:2; Rev. 22:16.)
Daystar
- which precedes and accompanies the sun-rising. It is found only in 2 Pet.
1:19, where it denotes the manifestation of Christ to the soul, imparting spiritual
light and comfort. He is the "bright and morning star" of Rev. 2:28; 22:16. (Comp.
Num. 24:17.)
Deacon
- Anglicized form of the Greek word diaconos, meaning a "runner," "messenger,"
"servant." For a long period a feeling of mutual jealousy had existed between
the "Hebrews," or Jews proper, who spoke the sacred language of palestine, and
the "Hellenists," or Jews of the Grecian speech, who had adopted the Grecian language,
and read the Septuagint version of the Bible instead of the Hebrew. This jealousy
early appeared in the Christian community. It was alleged by the Hellenists that
their widows were overlooked in the daily distribution of alms. This spirit must
be checked. The apostles accordingly advised the disciples to look out for seven
men of good report, full of the Holy Ghost, and men of practical wisdom, who should
take entire charge of this distribution, leaving them free to devote themselves
entirely to the spiritual functions of their office (Acts 6:1-6). This was accordingly
done. Seven men were chosen, who appear from their names to have been Hellenists.
The name "deacon" is nowhere applied to them in the New Testament; they are simply
called "the seven" (21:8). Their office was at first secular, but it afterwards
became also spiritual; for among other qualifications they must also be "apt to
teach" (1 Tim. 3: 8-12). Both Philip and Stephen, who were of "the seven," preached;
they did "the work of evangelists."
Deaconess
- Rom. 16:1, 3, 12; Phil. 4:2, 3; 1 Tim. 3:11; 5:9, 10; Titus 2:3, 4). In
these passages it is evident that females were then engaged in various Christian
ministrations. Pliny makes mention of them also in his letter to Trajan (A.D.
110).
Dead
Sea - the name given by Greek writers of the second century to that inland
sea called in Scripture the "salt sea" (Gen. 14:3; Num. 34:12), the "sea of the
plain" (Deut. 3:17), the "east sea" (Ezek. 47:18; Joel 2:20), and simply "the
sea" (Ezek. 47:8). The Arabs call it Bahr Lut, i.e., the Sea of Lot. It lies about
16 miles in a straight line to the east of Jerusalem. Its surface is 1,292 feet
below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea. It covers an area of about 300 square
miles. Its depth varies from 1,310 to 11 feet. From various phenomena that have
been observed, its bottom appears to be still subsiding. It is about 53 miles
long, and of an average breadth of 10 miles. It has no outlet, the great heat
of that region causing such rapid evaporation that its average depth, notwithstanding
the rivers that run into it (see JORDAN ¯T0002112), is maintained with little
variation. The Jordan alone discharges into it no less than six million tons of
water every twenty-four hours.
The
waters of the Dead Sea contain 24.6 per cent. of mineral salts, about seven times
as much as in ordinary sea-water; thus they are unusually buoyant. Chloride of
magnesium is most abundant; next to that chloride of sodium (common salt). But
terraces of alluvial deposits in the deep valley of the Jordan show that formerly
one great lake extended from the Waters of Merom to the foot of the watershed
in the Arabah. The waters were then about 1,400 feet above the present level of
the Dead Sea, or slightly above that of the Mediterranean, and at that time were
much less salt.
Nothing living
can exist in this sea. "The fish carried down by the Jordan at once die, nor can
even mussels or corals live in it; but it is a fable that no bird can fly over
it, or that there are no living creatures on its banks. Dr. Tristram found on
the shores three kinds of kingfishers, gulls, ducks, and grebes, which he says
live on the fish which enter the sea in shoals, and presently die. He collected
one hundred and eighteen species of birds, some new to science, on the shores,
or swimming or flying over the waters. The cane-brakes which fringe it at some
parts are the homes of about forty species of mammalia, several of them animals
unknown in England; and innumerable tropical or semi-tropical plants perfume the
atmosphere wherever fresh water can reach. The climate is perfect and most delicious,
and indeed there is perhaps no place in the world where a sanatorium could be
established with so much prospect of benefit as at Ain Jidi (Engedi).", Geikie's
Hours, etc.
Dearth
- a scarcity of provisions (1 Kings 17). There were frequent dearths in Palestine.
In the days of Abram there was a "famine in the land" (Gen. 12:10), so also in
the days of Jacob (47:4, 13). We read also of dearths in the time of the judges
(Ruth 1:1), and of the kings (2 Sam. 21:1; 1 Kings 18:2; 2 Kings 4:38; 8:1).
In
New Testament times there was an extensive famine in Palestine (Acts 11:28) in
the fourth year of the reign of the emperor Claudius (A.D. 44 and 45).
Death
- may be simply defined as the termination of life. It is represented under
a variety of aspects in Scripture: (1.) "The dust shall return to the earth as
it was" (Eccl. 12:7).
(2.)
"Thou takest away their breath, they die" (Ps. 104:29).
(3.)
It is the dissolution of "our earthly house of this tabernacle" (2 Cor. 5:1);
the "putting off this tabernacle" (2 Pet. 1:13, 14).
(6.)
"I go whence I shall not return" (Job 10:21); "Make me to know mine end" (Ps.
39:4); "to depart" (Phil. 1:23).
The
grave is represented as "the gates of death" (Job 38:17; Ps. 9:13; 107:18). The
gloomy silence of the grave is spoken of under the figure of the "shadow of death"
(Jer. 2:6).
Death is the
effect of sin (Heb. 2:14), and not a "debt of nature." It is but once (9:27),
universal (Gen. 3:19), necessary (Luke 2:28-30). Jesus has by his own death taken
away its sting for all his followers (1 Cor. 15:55-57).
There
is a spiritual death in trespasses and sins, i.e., the death of the soul under
the power of sin (Rom. 8:6; Eph. 2:1, 3; Col. 2:13).
The
"second death" (Rev. 2:11) is the everlasting perdition of the wicked (Rev. 21:8),
and "second" in respect to natural or temporal death.
THE
DEATH OF CHRIST is the procuring cause incidentally of all the blessings men enjoy
on earth. But specially it is the procuring cause of the actual salvation of all
his people, together with all the means that lead thereto. It does not make their
salvation merely possible, but certain (Matt. 18:11; Rom. 5:10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal.
1:4; 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 2:16; Rom. 8:32-35).
Debir
- oracle town; sanctuary. (1.) One of the eleven cities to the west of Hebron,
in the highlands of Judah (Josh. 15:49; Judg. 1:11-15). It was originally one
of the towns of the Anakim (Josh. 15:15), and was also called Kirjath-sepher (q.v.)
and Kirjath-sannah (49). Caleb, who had conquered and taken possession of the
town and district of Hebron (Josh. 14:6-15), offered the hand of his daughter
to any one who would successfully lead a party against Debir. Othniel, his younger
brother (Judg. 1:13; 3:9), achieved the conquest, and gained Achsah as his wife.
She was not satisfied with the portion her father gave her, and as she was proceeding
toward her new home, she "lighted from off her ass" and said to him, "Give me
a blessing [i.e., a dowry]: for thou hast given me a south land" (Josh. 15:19,
A.V.); or, as in the Revised Version, "Thou hast set me in the land of the south",
i.e., in the Negeb, outside the rich valley of Hebron, in the dry and barren land.
"Give me also springs of water. And he gave her the upper springs, and the nether
springs."
Debir has been
identified with the modern Edh-Dhaheriyeh, i.e., "the well on the ridge", to the
south of Hebron.
(2.) A place
near the "valley of Achor" (Josh. 15:7), on the north boundary of Judah, between
Jerusalem and Jericho.
(3.)
The king of Eglon, one of the five Canaanitish kings who were hanged by Joshua
(Josh. 10:3, 23) after the victory at Gibeon. These kings fled and took refuge
in a cave at Makkedah. Here they were kept confined till Joshua returned from
the pursuit of their discomfited armies, when he caused them to be brought forth,
and "Joshua smote them, and slew them, and hanged them on five trees" (26).
Deborah
- a bee. (1.) Rebekah's nurse. She accompanied her mistress when she left
her father's house in Padan-aram to become the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:59). Many
years afterwards she died at Bethel, and was buried under the "oak of weeping",
Allon-bachuth (35:8).
(2.)
A prophetess, "wife" (woman?) of Lapidoth. Jabin, the king of Hazor, had for twenty
years held Israel in degrading subjection. The spirit of patriotism seemed crushed
out of the nation. In this emergency Deborah roused the people from their lethargy.
Her fame spread far and wide. She became a "mother in Israel" (Judg. 4:6, 14;
5:7), and "the children of Israel came up to her for judgment" as she sat in her
tent under the palm tree "between Ramah and Bethel." Preparations were everywhere
made by her direction for the great effort to throw off the yoke of bondage. She
summoned Barak from Kadesh to take the command of 10,000 men of Zebulun and Naphtali,
and lead them to Mount Tabor on the plain of Esdraelon at its north-east end.
With his aid she organized this army. She gave the signal for attack, and the
Hebrew host rushed down impetuously upon the army of Jabin, which was commanded
by Sisera, and gained a great and decisive victory. The Canaanitish army almost
wholly perished. That was a great and ever-memorable day in Israel. In Judg. 5
is given the grand triumphal ode, the "song of Deborah," which she wrote in grateful
commemoration of that great deliverance. (See LAPIDOTH ¯T0002240, JABIN ¯T0001938
[2].)
Debt
- The Mosaic law encouraged the practice of lending (Deut. 15:7; Ps. 37:26;
Matt. 5:42); but it forbade the exaction of interest except from foreigners. Usury
was strongly condemned (Prov. 28:8; Ezek. 18:8, 13, 17; 22:12; Ps. 15:5). On the
Sabbatical year all pecuniary obligations were cancelled (Deut. 15:1-11). These
regulations prevented the accumulation of debt.
Debtor
- Various regulations as to the relation between debtor and creditor are laid
down in the Scriptures.
(1.)
The debtor was to deliver up as a pledge to the creditor what he could most easily
dispense with (Deut. 24:10, 11).
(2.)
A mill, or millstone, or upper garment, when given as a pledge, could not be kept
over night (Ex. 22:26, 27).
(3.)
A debt could not be exacted during the Sabbatic year (Deut. 15:1-15).
For
other laws bearing on this relation see Lev. 25:14, 32, 39; Matt. 18:25, 34.
(4.)
A surety was liable in the same way as the original debtor (Prov. 11:15; 17:18).
Decalogue
- the name given by the Greek fathers to the ten commandments; "the ten words,"
as the original is more literally rendered (Ex. 20:3-17). These commandments were
at first written on two stone slabs (31:18), which were broken by Moses throwing
them down on the ground (32:19). They were written by God a second time (34:1).
The decalogue is alluded to in the New Testament five times (Matt. 5:17, 18, 19;
Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; Rom. 7:7, 8; 13:9; 1 Tim. 1:9, 10).
These
commandments have been divided since the days of Origen the Greek father, as they
stand in the Confession of all the Reformed Churches except the Lutheran. The
division adopted by Luther, and which has ever since been received in the Lutheran
Church, makes the first two commandments one, and the third the second, and so
on to the last, which is divided into two. "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's
house" being ranked as ninth, and "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife,"
etc., the tenth. (See COMMANDMENTS.)
Charles Henderson
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The Rev. Charles P. Henderson is a Presbyterian minister and
Executive Director of CrossCurrents.
He is the author of God and Science (John Knox Press, 1986).
A revised and expanded version of the book is appearing here. God and Science (Hypertext Edition,
2005).
He is also editor of a new book, featuring articles by world class scientists and theologians, and illustrating the leading views on the relationship between science and religion: Faith, Science and the Future (CrossCurrents Press, 2007).
Charles also tracks the boundry between the virtual and the real at his blog: Next World Design, focusing on the mediation of art, science and spirituality in the metaverse.